Kuhn is perhaps best know for his use of the term paradigm and is typically attributed with popularizing the term (e.g. Dalenoort 1989, Skrtic 1990, Guba 1990). The term, however, is open to a wide variety of interpretations. Thompson (1989) for example, notes two types of paradigm: ontological/substantive and epistemological/methodological. Masterman (1970) suggests that Kuhn uses the term twenty-one different ways, although she groups these into three categories: metaphysical, sociological, and construct.

Kuhn himself, even in 1970, recognized the term had "assumed a life of its own" (ibid. p 187). In the postscript to the 2nd edition, Kuhn (1970) admits to his own ambiguous application of the term:

"On the one hand, it stands for the entire constellation of beliefs, values, techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given community. On the other, it denotes one sort of element in that constellation, the concrete puzzle-solutions which, employed as models or examples, can replace explicit rules as a basis for the solution of the remaining puzzles of normal science" (ibid. p 175).

Kuhn offers two new terms - disciplinary matrix and exemplars, respectively - for the definitions, claiming paradigm inappropriate for the first definition, and notes his intentional application for reference to the latter. History has gone against him, however, neither of the alternatives has made a mark and use of the term paradigm most closely reflects the first definition.

Guba (1990, p 17) argues that such "problematic limbo" is "intellectually useful" allowing the possibility to "reshape [the term] as our understanding of its many implications improves." This "limbo," however, also causes confusion and misunderstanding.

Paradigm is typically used to refer to a world view or basic set of beliefs that guide action (e.g. Thompson 1989, Guba 1990, Creswell 1990). I believe many of the difficulties and ambiguities arise be because in the generic sense typically used, the term is a holarchical concept in the same way that system is (Figure 1). It is applied in reference to the basic set of beliefs guiding action or research at different levels. Even though the definition of paradigm itself is used quite consistently, its application at different levels generates confusion. Discussing an epistemological paradigm is quite different than discussing a methods paradigm.

 Kuhn's interpretation of science

 Metaphorical applications:

• Paradigms as umbrellas
• Paradigms as platforms